The First Person Perspective in Walden
By Matthew Cox
Walden was an essay written by author Henry David Thoreau. The book covered Thoreau’s two year stay at Walden Pond in Massachusetts between 1845 and 1847. It featured the writer’s observations of the natural order and a deep appreciation of Transcendentalism. This philosophy taught that nature made up a Supreme Being. Walden taught that people could improve themselves by not conforming to society’s rules and living independently. Thoreau used examples of being self reliant by growing hi own food, not paying taxes that supported slavery, and observing how people treated each other. The essay was written in the first-person perspective. This was from the narrator’s or speaker’s point of view. Henry David Thoreau expressed his beliefs on Transcendentalism through the first person narrative in Walden.
Literature has been written from different points of view. Often times there is a narrator or speaker who tells what goes on from their perspective. A narrator is the story teller (Holman and Harmon, p. 320 and 386-387). They may be the protagonist or a minor character in the first person. A second person narrator was a teacher or shows the reader how to do something. The third person was told from an “onlooker” perspective of someone who witnessed the action. In third person omniscient, different characters acted self consciously by recounting and commenting on a story from. In the third person limited perspective, the reader only knew what the main characters could immediately see or hear. Likewise, the third person objective view or self-effacing author, the reader did not see the narrator’s thoughts, only what they perceived straight away. The naïve narrator saw things in an innocent or inexperienced way (319). Often times, they did not see hidden dangers or were not good judges of character. Unreliable narrators deceived readers through lies or errors in judgment (518). They did not give accurate pictures of characters or events in stories.
Henry David Thoreau wrote Walden as an essay in 1854 (Kifer). The work was semi-autobiographical and written in the first person point of view. It contained Thoreau’s views and not objective scientific facts about his observations at Walden Pond between 1845 and 1847. Thoreau’s perspective reflected Transcendentalism in a vision quest to understand both spiritualism and the environment. He explored both his identity and how it fit into the world.
The first four parts dealt with how people interacted with each other and their surrounding under the concept known as “Economy.” For example, “Economy, Part I” criticized the self-defeating behaviors of his townspeople in Concord, Massachusetts. Also, Thoreau pointed out that individuals could improve themselves by making the right choices. He discussed his own lifestyle and decision to retreat to Walden Pond in “Economy, Part II.” The writer’s reasons included that when people worked to get the bare necessities (i.e. food, shelter, clothing, and fuel), they thought about their own personal or spiritual growth. He also pointed out that people had the right to live as they chose in a free society. Thoreau talked about “Economy, Part III” building his own cabin. The writer also used this to discuss the cost of living, attack the cost of living, and find fault with modern improvements such as the railroad. “Economy, Part IV” described how Thoreau criticized farming methods and people’s misunderstanding of the poor. He also discussed his diet, planting techniques, furniture, and property.
“Where I Lived, What I Lived For” involved why the author chose the cabin at Walden Pond his choice not to own property; he felt that private ownership lead to selfishness. The chapter also pointed out his purpose in life and challenges for self-improvement. “Reading” referred to books that the author felt that people could read to make their lives better. Thoreau described living in the woods and the noises he heard in “Sounds.” This chapter also pointed out his disagreements with the railroad and commerce. “Solitude” discussed good health and being alone. The writer talked about his way of entertaining visitors including escaped slaves, woodchoppers, a simpleton, and others in “Visitors.” He recounted some of their peculiarities. “The Beanfield” explained Thoreau’s work with growing his own food, its costs, and the alternatives.
Through the perspective of an anthropologist, Thoreau described Concord in “The Village.” He described the community “gopher hole” for their bickering and selfishness. A highlight included getting arrested for not paying a poll tax which supported slavery. The writer was released the next day. Thoreau described the plants, animals, and features of Walden Pond in greater detail with “The Ponds.” He also provided information about other water bodies including Flint’s Pond and its selfish owner. White Pond another body of water was similar to Walden Pond. “The Baker Farm” discussed a fishing trip that Thoreau took. On the outing, he met a farmer named John Field who lived a life of luxury. He persuaded John’s family to lead a simpler, unmaterialistic life. The narrator used the animals living around Walden Pond as a metaphor of human society in “Brute Neighbors.” The most notable included ant colonies fighting a war. “Higher Laws” discussed the ethic of hunting, eating meat, and the need for purity. Thoreau was a vegetarian, but ate fish.
In the chapter “House Warming,” the author discussed on the coming of fall. He built a chimey for warmth and plastered the cabin’s wall to keep out the cold. Henry expressed his appreciation of fire and wood. “Former Inhabitants and Winter Vistors” talked about guests in winter they included the people who lived in the cabin before Thoreau moved in. The author also had other visitors including Amos Bronson Alcott and Ralph Waldo Emerson. “Winter Visitors” told about the animals including mice, owls, and squirrels that Thoreau saw after baiting them with food. The author described a fox hunt that he saw. “The Pond in Winter” recounted how 100 laborers cut ice out of the pond and shipped them to the Carolinas. Henry measured the depth of the pond and discovered an underground outlet. Thoreau depicted how the Pond thawed out in “Spring.” The writer also wrote about green plants growing, geese returning home, and a hawk flying. He felt reborn as nature was.
The “Conclusion” was important because it summed up Thoreau’s thoughts. He criticized American’s rush to succeed, acquire wealth, and look for happiness in the material world. Furthermore, people needed to think for themselves, not go along with society’s rules, and find happiness within. The author summed up his book with the quote "If a man does not keep pace with his companions, perhaps it is because he hears a different drummer. Let him step to the music which he hears, however measured or far away (Kifer)."
Henry David Thoreau expressed his beliefs on Transcendentalism through the first person narrative in Walden. The book recounted the author’s stay at Walden Pond between 1845 and 1847. Living simply allowed Henry to understand transcendentalism. This notion taught that the living environment was a spiritual entity. Thoreau expressed his belief that individuals could improve their lives by being self reliant and not conforming to society. Living away from civilization let him observe not only nature, but how people interacted with each other. The first person point of view let readers understand the writer’s ideas.
Works Cited
Holman, C. Hugh and Harmon, William. Handbook to Literature, A. 5th ed.
New York: MacMillian, 1986.
Kifer, Ken. Analysis and Notes on Walden Henry Thoreau's Text with Adjacent Thoreauvian Commentary 7 October 2003. 16 February 2008.
http://www.kenkifer.com/Thoreau/index.htm
Saturday, February 16, 2008
Emerson and Transcendentalism
By Matthew Cox
The writer Ralph Waldo Emerson was credited as starting the Transcendentalist movement in the early 1800’s. It grew out of Unitarian and Congregationalist Churches in New England. The first major work of the association was Emerson’s book Nature published in 1836. It taught that nature itself was a spiritual force that people needed to understand. Nature was one of the first uniquely American: books because it did not follow traditional British writing styles. Henry David Thoreau used Emerson’s works, particularly Nature, to get ideas for his writings. The American Scholar showed how educated people could understand their learning styles by watching the environment. It also emphasized free thought. Self Reliance written in 1841 asserted both individualism and taking responsibility for a person’s actions. Emerson believed that people who acted independently could make ethical choices. Ralph Waldo Emerson used his writings to spread Transcendentalist ideas.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1883) was described as the father of early 19th Century Transcendentalism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Religion). Other important Transcendentalists included Henry David Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, Amos Bronson Alcott, Frederic Henry Hedge, and Theodore Parker. It was heavily influenced by English and German Romanticism, German philospohers Johann Herder and Friedrich Schleiermacher, and Scottish philospher David Hume. Transcendentalists criticized the ridged status quo of their time. They encouraged individual thinking and "an original relation to the universe" (Stanford). Emerson and Thoreau were on the forefront and explored their own individuality in nature and writing. Furthermore, they did with social experiments. In the 1840s, the Transcendentalists set up communities at Brook Farm, Fruitlands, and Walden. During the 1850's, many called for an end to slavery.
The origins of Transcendentalism came from New England Congregationalists who broke away from traditional Calvinism in two ways. First, they emphasized hard work and opposed Puritan notion of accepting one’s position in life. Secondly, Transcendentalists believed in the “unity” of God’s nature. This notion asserted that the Creator was one being and not three as in the "Trinity. In fact the word “Unitarian” was a derogatory term that the demonization adopted. Most of the Unitarians held that Jesus was not the son of God. Rather, he was a divinely superior human who taught and used special powers. A few Unitarians followed the English Unitarian minister, Joseph Priestley (1733–1804). He taught that that Jesus was human and given special authority. The American Unitarians' leading preacher, William Ellery Channing (1780–1842), denounced traditional Congregationalism as a religion which promoted fear. He insisted that Jesus saved and not punished people for sin. Channing’s sermon, "Unitarian Christianity" (1819) denounced traditional theology as "the conspiracy of ages against the liberty of Christians." It helped to define the Unitarians. Furthermore, the minister insisted that people "partake" of Christ’s Divinity in his "Likeness to God" (1828) sermon. Doing so would allow them to accomplish "a growing likeness to the Supreme Being.”
Emerson anonymously published Nature as a short book in 1836. This essay established concept of Transcendentalism as a non-traditional reverence for nature (Wikipedia). Evidence from science including zoology, botany, and geology confirmed that nature involved many intricate levels. The writer developed his ideas after visiting the Nationals Museum of Natural History in Paris. He lectured on his notions in Boston and wrote them Nature. Emerson described the natural world as an overarching spiritual being that can be understood by observing how living things interact with each other. This differed from customary notions of a Supreme Being learned by people through scripture and life’s experience.
Most literary scholars described Emerson as one of the first writers with a uniquely American literary style and vision. Other such writers included Mark Twain and Walt Whitman. Other writers at the time, including Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, were influenced by British writers. Nature was important because it examined America in its own environment. The English viewed nature as a collection of historical events and important people. America differed because the natural world was new to Western Civilization with no artificial meaning. America’s new perspective let Emerson see the environment in a new perspective. This let him rebuild its role in a new way. Emerson explained that his stay in the woods allowed him to understand transcendentalism. Henry David Thoreau read Nature in his last year at Harvard. It influenced his later writings, particularly Walden.
Emerson wrote a following essay, The American Scholar, following Nature. This writing established his new philosophy and literary career. He used Transcendentalist and Romantic views to assert the true American scholar’s connection to nature. It covered several key points. For example, the "One Man" concept characterized the social unity of Americans working to help each other; one part of the body was as important as the other ones. Citizens needed to see themselves as part of the social order. Working for the common good was not only important, but also essential to society. Emerson summed up this idea with "Man is not a farmer, or a professor, or an engineer, but he is all (Wikipedia)." This was a writing technique known as a metaphor. It described one thing by connecting it to something unrelated. A similar writing technique was called characterization. Such methods involved describing the background and features of a person, place, or thing.
The writer also insisted that a well-rounded scholar must follow three pursuits. Firstly, they must investigate and understand nature, including the scholar's own mind and person. Secondly, educated people must study "the mind of the Past" understand various viewpoints and "get at the truth (Wikipedia)." Thirdly, take action by interacting with the world and not withdrawing from it by becoming reclusive. These three pursuits reflected the scholar’s duty or “office” to “guide men” by showing them facts amidst appearances.”
Self-Reliance, written in 1841, also reflected Transcendentalism (Butler-Bowdon). Emerson stressed individuality and freedom of thought. He believed that Americans had the right to live as they chose and avoid conformity. When people followed their own instincts and ideas, they make moral choices. Living independently allowed people to avoid false ideas. The writer formed his ideas for Self-Reliance by looking at nature, Bible teachings, and Eastern religious texts (i.e. the Upanishads, Vedas, the Bhagavad-Gita). The writing reflected Emerson’s attitude that human nature was essentially good. Both he and Henry David Thoreau believed that people needed to understand themselves before trying to improve society or giving to “good causes.” Emerson summed up this notion as “All men plume themselves on the improvement of society, and no man improves. If we could not examine ourselves and identify our calling, we would be of little use (Butler-Bowdon).” Although Emerson stressed individuality, he believed that people should not be selfish. People benefit society by working for the common good. Generosity was the best way of giving oneself to society.
Ralph Waldo Emerson used his writings to spread Transcendentalist ideas. The movement came from Unitarians in the early 1800’s rejecting traditional Congregationalist beliefs. Nature, taught that nature was one divine being that needed to be cared for. This was credited as first major work of Transcendentalism. It helped to establish the American writing style by rejecting British forms of literature. Henry David Thoreau modeled his ideas and writing style after Emerson’s works, mostly Nature. The American Scholar emphasized how intellectuals should improve their learning styles by observing natural world. The essay showed how people must learn things for themselves. Self Reliance focused on the way the people must think and act for themselves. It also taught that individuals who think independently act generously.
Works Cited
“The American Scholar.” Wikipedia.org. 25 January 2008, 15 February 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Scholar
“Nature.” Wikipedia.org. 25 January 2008, 15 February 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_%28Emerson%29
“Self-Reliance.” 50classics.com. 2005, 15 February 2008
http://www.butler-bowdon.com/selfreliance.htm
“Transcendentalism.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 6 February 2003,
15 February 2008 http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/transcendentalism/
By Matthew Cox
The writer Ralph Waldo Emerson was credited as starting the Transcendentalist movement in the early 1800’s. It grew out of Unitarian and Congregationalist Churches in New England. The first major work of the association was Emerson’s book Nature published in 1836. It taught that nature itself was a spiritual force that people needed to understand. Nature was one of the first uniquely American: books because it did not follow traditional British writing styles. Henry David Thoreau used Emerson’s works, particularly Nature, to get ideas for his writings. The American Scholar showed how educated people could understand their learning styles by watching the environment. It also emphasized free thought. Self Reliance written in 1841 asserted both individualism and taking responsibility for a person’s actions. Emerson believed that people who acted independently could make ethical choices. Ralph Waldo Emerson used his writings to spread Transcendentalist ideas.
Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1883) was described as the father of early 19th Century Transcendentalism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Religion). Other important Transcendentalists included Henry David Thoreau, Margaret Fuller, Amos Bronson Alcott, Frederic Henry Hedge, and Theodore Parker. It was heavily influenced by English and German Romanticism, German philospohers Johann Herder and Friedrich Schleiermacher, and Scottish philospher David Hume. Transcendentalists criticized the ridged status quo of their time. They encouraged individual thinking and "an original relation to the universe" (Stanford). Emerson and Thoreau were on the forefront and explored their own individuality in nature and writing. Furthermore, they did with social experiments. In the 1840s, the Transcendentalists set up communities at Brook Farm, Fruitlands, and Walden. During the 1850's, many called for an end to slavery.
The origins of Transcendentalism came from New England Congregationalists who broke away from traditional Calvinism in two ways. First, they emphasized hard work and opposed Puritan notion of accepting one’s position in life. Secondly, Transcendentalists believed in the “unity” of God’s nature. This notion asserted that the Creator was one being and not three as in the "Trinity. In fact the word “Unitarian” was a derogatory term that the demonization adopted. Most of the Unitarians held that Jesus was not the son of God. Rather, he was a divinely superior human who taught and used special powers. A few Unitarians followed the English Unitarian minister, Joseph Priestley (1733–1804). He taught that that Jesus was human and given special authority. The American Unitarians' leading preacher, William Ellery Channing (1780–1842), denounced traditional Congregationalism as a religion which promoted fear. He insisted that Jesus saved and not punished people for sin. Channing’s sermon, "Unitarian Christianity" (1819) denounced traditional theology as "the conspiracy of ages against the liberty of Christians." It helped to define the Unitarians. Furthermore, the minister insisted that people "partake" of Christ’s Divinity in his "Likeness to God" (1828) sermon. Doing so would allow them to accomplish "a growing likeness to the Supreme Being.”
Emerson anonymously published Nature as a short book in 1836. This essay established concept of Transcendentalism as a non-traditional reverence for nature (Wikipedia). Evidence from science including zoology, botany, and geology confirmed that nature involved many intricate levels. The writer developed his ideas after visiting the Nationals Museum of Natural History in Paris. He lectured on his notions in Boston and wrote them Nature. Emerson described the natural world as an overarching spiritual being that can be understood by observing how living things interact with each other. This differed from customary notions of a Supreme Being learned by people through scripture and life’s experience.
Most literary scholars described Emerson as one of the first writers with a uniquely American literary style and vision. Other such writers included Mark Twain and Walt Whitman. Other writers at the time, including Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, were influenced by British writers. Nature was important because it examined America in its own environment. The English viewed nature as a collection of historical events and important people. America differed because the natural world was new to Western Civilization with no artificial meaning. America’s new perspective let Emerson see the environment in a new perspective. This let him rebuild its role in a new way. Emerson explained that his stay in the woods allowed him to understand transcendentalism. Henry David Thoreau read Nature in his last year at Harvard. It influenced his later writings, particularly Walden.
Emerson wrote a following essay, The American Scholar, following Nature. This writing established his new philosophy and literary career. He used Transcendentalist and Romantic views to assert the true American scholar’s connection to nature. It covered several key points. For example, the "One Man" concept characterized the social unity of Americans working to help each other; one part of the body was as important as the other ones. Citizens needed to see themselves as part of the social order. Working for the common good was not only important, but also essential to society. Emerson summed up this idea with "Man is not a farmer, or a professor, or an engineer, but he is all (Wikipedia)." This was a writing technique known as a metaphor. It described one thing by connecting it to something unrelated. A similar writing technique was called characterization. Such methods involved describing the background and features of a person, place, or thing.
The writer also insisted that a well-rounded scholar must follow three pursuits. Firstly, they must investigate and understand nature, including the scholar's own mind and person. Secondly, educated people must study "the mind of the Past" understand various viewpoints and "get at the truth (Wikipedia)." Thirdly, take action by interacting with the world and not withdrawing from it by becoming reclusive. These three pursuits reflected the scholar’s duty or “office” to “guide men” by showing them facts amidst appearances.”
Self-Reliance, written in 1841, also reflected Transcendentalism (Butler-Bowdon). Emerson stressed individuality and freedom of thought. He believed that Americans had the right to live as they chose and avoid conformity. When people followed their own instincts and ideas, they make moral choices. Living independently allowed people to avoid false ideas. The writer formed his ideas for Self-Reliance by looking at nature, Bible teachings, and Eastern religious texts (i.e. the Upanishads, Vedas, the Bhagavad-Gita). The writing reflected Emerson’s attitude that human nature was essentially good. Both he and Henry David Thoreau believed that people needed to understand themselves before trying to improve society or giving to “good causes.” Emerson summed up this notion as “All men plume themselves on the improvement of society, and no man improves. If we could not examine ourselves and identify our calling, we would be of little use (Butler-Bowdon).” Although Emerson stressed individuality, he believed that people should not be selfish. People benefit society by working for the common good. Generosity was the best way of giving oneself to society.
Ralph Waldo Emerson used his writings to spread Transcendentalist ideas. The movement came from Unitarians in the early 1800’s rejecting traditional Congregationalist beliefs. Nature, taught that nature was one divine being that needed to be cared for. This was credited as first major work of Transcendentalism. It helped to establish the American writing style by rejecting British forms of literature. Henry David Thoreau modeled his ideas and writing style after Emerson’s works, mostly Nature. The American Scholar emphasized how intellectuals should improve their learning styles by observing natural world. The essay showed how people must learn things for themselves. Self Reliance focused on the way the people must think and act for themselves. It also taught that individuals who think independently act generously.
Works Cited
“The American Scholar.” Wikipedia.org. 25 January 2008, 15 February 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_American_Scholar
“Nature.” Wikipedia.org. 25 January 2008, 15 February 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_%28Emerson%29
“Self-Reliance.” 50classics.com. 2005, 15 February 2008
http://www.butler-bowdon.com/selfreliance.htm
“Transcendentalism.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 6 February 2003,
15 February 2008 http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/transcendentalism/
Saturday, February 9, 2008
Murder in Two Stories by Poe
By Matthew Cox
Many stories in literature do not end the way readers expect them to. This was known as irony (Holman and Harmon, p. 484). There have been many kinds of irony. For example, sarcasm has been verbal irony. The speaker said the opposite of what they meant. In structural irony, a naive main character did not know what was going on. However, the reader knew the fate he would suffer. Dramatic irony was similar because readers knew more about the outcome than the protagonist. This was called tragic irony in tragedies. In cosmic irony, a "cruel" fate duped the main character with circumstances beyond their control. Edgar Allen Poe used irony in his stories for dramatic effect.
Stream-of-conscious stories showed the emotional and mental responses of an individual. It has usually been done with first person narratives. Such responses ranging from the most basic emotion to the highest thought could be understood by the reader. Edgar Allan Poe used this method to describe the anguish that characters in his stories felt. He also used irony to enhance the tale’s emotional effect at the end of each story. This allowed readers to see how the main characters responded to their actions. Edgar Allan Poe used stream-of-consciousness and irony to let readers understand the feelings of characters in his stories.
Poe’s classic story of “The Tell-Tale Heart” was a first-person narrative of a man who lived with an older fellow who had a “vulture-like eye.” The story started in media res (in the middle of the action) as the speaker plotted to kill his partner. It continued as a stream-of-consciousness tale as the young man felt overly sensitive when the eye looked at him. Sensations such as these described the narrator’s thoughts and emotions as he committed the killing (Gratham). For example, the story described how the protagonist waited “seven nights” to murder his friend. As the plot unfolded, the main character admitted that he could only kill his roommate when the vulture-eye was open. On the eighth night, the narrator woke the elderly fellow who sat up in bed. A ray of light from the speaker’s lantern shown on his friend’s eye. The narrator smothered with a mattress his roommate while thinking that he heard the man’s heart beat louder and louder. Frantically, the speaker hid the evidence by cutting up the man’s body and hiding it under the floorboards. Such a struggle alerted a neighbor who called the police. Three officers came to the man’s house. The speaker invited them in to investigate. He even allowed them to sit in chairs over the spot where he hid the dismembered body. The story ended ironically. As the police suspect nothing, the main character thought that he heard the old man’s heart beating louder and louder through the floor. All three of the policemen did not hear the sound. However, the speaker believed that they heard it too. In desperation, the narrator confessed to the killing. He even tore up the floorboards to show where the body was. This was an example of dramatic irony. The narrator’s hallucination of the old man’s beating heart let the reader’s see his undoing by admitting to the crime.
Poe’s theme of murder in “The Tell-Tale Heart,” continued in other stories including “The Cask of Amontillado (Baraban).” This story was similar to the latter because it was a stream-of-conscious narrative from the first person perspective. Monstressor, the protagonist, took revenge on another noble, Fortunato, during a carnival. The narrator did not say why he wanted to get even. He led his friend, dressed a jester, down into a wine cellar to get a bottle of rare amontillado. Next, Monstressor took his friend to catacombs under the city where the drink was hidden in a special place. After having several drinks, Fortunato became drunk. His rival chained him inside an alcove and began to seal it up with stones and mortar. Fortunato sobered up and believed that it was a big joke. However, Monstressor seemed to enjoy his work. For example, he stopped a few timed to hear his friend shake the chains or bells on his costume. Unlike the narrator in “The Tell-Tale Heart,” Monstressor seemed to have a moment of remorse as he put the last stone in. He dismissed it a sickness from the damp. The protagonist admitted to his crime at the very end. However, Monstressor said that he did it fifty years ago. This was an example of structural irony. Such irony used a naive hero or unreliable narrator such as Monstressor to mislead the reader. This allowed writers to surprise readers at the end of the stories.
Edgar Allan Poe used stream-of-consciousness and irony to let readers understand the feelings of characters in his stories. Stream-of-conscious has been a literary effect that writers have used to let readers connect to characters in stories. It has shown Such responses ranging from the most basic emotion to the highest thought could be understood by the reader. Both the feeling and inner thoughts of individuals. This technique has been done often with first person narratives (Holman and Harmon, p. 484). Authors including Edgar Allan Poe used this method to draw readers into story characters. He also used irony at the end of different stories for dramatic effect. This allowed readers to understand how different characters reacted to their own behaviors.
Works Cited
Baraban, Elena. “The Motive for Murder in ‘The Cask of Amontillado’ by Edgar
Allan Poe.” Rocky Mountain Language Association. 9 January 2008 http://rmmla.wsu.edu/ereview/58.2/articles/baraban.asp.
Grantham , Michael. “The Tell-Tale Heart, by Edgar Allan Poe.” Helium
9 January 2008 http://www.helium.com/tm/523545/often-recognized-
shadowy-elements.
Holman, C. Hughes and Harmon, William. Handbook to Literature, A. 5th ed.
New York: MacMillian, 1986.
By Matthew Cox
Many stories in literature do not end the way readers expect them to. This was known as irony (Holman and Harmon, p. 484). There have been many kinds of irony. For example, sarcasm has been verbal irony. The speaker said the opposite of what they meant. In structural irony, a naive main character did not know what was going on. However, the reader knew the fate he would suffer. Dramatic irony was similar because readers knew more about the outcome than the protagonist. This was called tragic irony in tragedies. In cosmic irony, a "cruel" fate duped the main character with circumstances beyond their control. Edgar Allen Poe used irony in his stories for dramatic effect.
Stream-of-conscious stories showed the emotional and mental responses of an individual. It has usually been done with first person narratives. Such responses ranging from the most basic emotion to the highest thought could be understood by the reader. Edgar Allan Poe used this method to describe the anguish that characters in his stories felt. He also used irony to enhance the tale’s emotional effect at the end of each story. This allowed readers to see how the main characters responded to their actions. Edgar Allan Poe used stream-of-consciousness and irony to let readers understand the feelings of characters in his stories.
Poe’s classic story of “The Tell-Tale Heart” was a first-person narrative of a man who lived with an older fellow who had a “vulture-like eye.” The story started in media res (in the middle of the action) as the speaker plotted to kill his partner. It continued as a stream-of-consciousness tale as the young man felt overly sensitive when the eye looked at him. Sensations such as these described the narrator’s thoughts and emotions as he committed the killing (Gratham). For example, the story described how the protagonist waited “seven nights” to murder his friend. As the plot unfolded, the main character admitted that he could only kill his roommate when the vulture-eye was open. On the eighth night, the narrator woke the elderly fellow who sat up in bed. A ray of light from the speaker’s lantern shown on his friend’s eye. The narrator smothered with a mattress his roommate while thinking that he heard the man’s heart beat louder and louder. Frantically, the speaker hid the evidence by cutting up the man’s body and hiding it under the floorboards. Such a struggle alerted a neighbor who called the police. Three officers came to the man’s house. The speaker invited them in to investigate. He even allowed them to sit in chairs over the spot where he hid the dismembered body. The story ended ironically. As the police suspect nothing, the main character thought that he heard the old man’s heart beating louder and louder through the floor. All three of the policemen did not hear the sound. However, the speaker believed that they heard it too. In desperation, the narrator confessed to the killing. He even tore up the floorboards to show where the body was. This was an example of dramatic irony. The narrator’s hallucination of the old man’s beating heart let the reader’s see his undoing by admitting to the crime.
Poe’s theme of murder in “The Tell-Tale Heart,” continued in other stories including “The Cask of Amontillado (Baraban).” This story was similar to the latter because it was a stream-of-conscious narrative from the first person perspective. Monstressor, the protagonist, took revenge on another noble, Fortunato, during a carnival. The narrator did not say why he wanted to get even. He led his friend, dressed a jester, down into a wine cellar to get a bottle of rare amontillado. Next, Monstressor took his friend to catacombs under the city where the drink was hidden in a special place. After having several drinks, Fortunato became drunk. His rival chained him inside an alcove and began to seal it up with stones and mortar. Fortunato sobered up and believed that it was a big joke. However, Monstressor seemed to enjoy his work. For example, he stopped a few timed to hear his friend shake the chains or bells on his costume. Unlike the narrator in “The Tell-Tale Heart,” Monstressor seemed to have a moment of remorse as he put the last stone in. He dismissed it a sickness from the damp. The protagonist admitted to his crime at the very end. However, Monstressor said that he did it fifty years ago. This was an example of structural irony. Such irony used a naive hero or unreliable narrator such as Monstressor to mislead the reader. This allowed writers to surprise readers at the end of the stories.
Edgar Allan Poe used stream-of-consciousness and irony to let readers understand the feelings of characters in his stories. Stream-of-conscious has been a literary effect that writers have used to let readers connect to characters in stories. It has shown Such responses ranging from the most basic emotion to the highest thought could be understood by the reader. Both the feeling and inner thoughts of individuals. This technique has been done often with first person narratives (Holman and Harmon, p. 484). Authors including Edgar Allan Poe used this method to draw readers into story characters. He also used irony at the end of different stories for dramatic effect. This allowed readers to understand how different characters reacted to their own behaviors.
Works Cited
Baraban, Elena. “The Motive for Murder in ‘The Cask of Amontillado’ by Edgar
Allan Poe.” Rocky Mountain Language Association. 9 January 2008 http://rmmla.wsu.edu/ereview/58.2/articles/baraban.asp.
Grantham , Michael. “The Tell-Tale Heart, by Edgar Allan Poe.” Helium
9 January 2008 http://www.helium.com/tm/523545/often-recognized-
shadowy-elements.
Holman, C. Hughes and Harmon, William. Handbook to Literature, A. 5th ed.
New York: MacMillian, 1986.
Friday, February 8, 2008
Pentameter, Poetry, and Poe
By Matthew Cox
Most forms of poetry have used iambic meters, various pieces of Edgar Allan Poe’s writings used unconventional ways of using syllable beats. The rhythm in poems have used patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables for artistic effect. The most common form of meters is the iambic pentameter. It used five stressed and five unstressed syllables in the same line. Poems by Poe including “The Raven” and “Annabel Lee” used the trochaic meter. The metric scheme involved one stressed syllable followed by and unstressed one in the same line. Children’s poems have used beats like these to engage readers. These writing techniques captured the dark tone of Poe’s works. Various writings of Edgar Allan Poe use the trochaic meter for artistic effect.
An iamb has been a metrical unit or foot used to measure the beat of stressed and unstressed syllables in poems (Baldick, p. 120). Stressed syllables have followed unstressed syllables. Works including sonnets or heroic couples were measured in iambic pentameter. It had five stressed syllables and five unstressed ones, with a total of ten beats. For example, the line “Oft she rejects, but never offends” by Alexander Pope showed an iambic pentameter (120). The iambic tetrameter involved used eight syllables on each line. Half were stressed and the others were unstressed. For example, “Come live with me, and be my love” by Christopher Marlowe used this pattern. Iambic tetrameter was often used in Greek dramas and Renaissance poetry. The least often used pattern has been the iambic hexameter. It referred to a line with three stressed syllables and three unstressed ones.
Edgar Allen Poe’s “The Raven” differed from poems by using the trochaic meter. It used one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one (Gioia). Such a pattern was more commonly found in children’s nursery rhymes. For example, the beat of “Nevermore” has been “Nev” (stressed), “er” (unstressed), and “more” (stressed). A pattern such as this caught the reader’s attention with an internal rhyme. Overall, the narrative poem told a story of a person shut in a room with "Darkness there, and nothing more" on New Year’s Eve. The speaker whispered the name of his dead girlfriend. He heard a scratching at the door and hoped that it was her ghost. The sound came from the window next. When the narrator opened the window, a raven flew in and landed on the bust of Pallas Athena. The raven has traditionally symbolized death. Landing on a white marble state represented the contrast between light and dark, or life and death. Much of the effect came from the trochaic meter. It gave the poem a songlike quality.
Themes of death and depression were common in Poe’s work. His last published poem “Annabel Lee” dealt with the same idea with various writing effects. The idea behind the writing was a man longing for a woman who died. He used her death as a metaphor of knowing her in “a kingdom by the sea” (123helpme.com). Many literary experts have agreed that Poe wrote “Annabel Lee” in memory of Virginia Clemm, his dead wife. Others speculated that it was an original idea. The depressing tone of the piece was created by iambic and anapestic feet, alternating between tetrameter and trimeter. An anapestic beat was a metrical foot made up by two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed one. For example, the word “interrupt” has broken down as follows:”in” (unstressed), “ter” (unstressed), and “rupt” (stressed).
Various writings of Edgar Allan Poe use the trochaic meter for artistic effect. Many poems in various generas have used iambic meters including the iambic pentameter. This writing technique involved five stressed and unstressed syllables in the same line. Different poems have various numbers of syllables. Poe showed this by writing “The Raven” and “Annabel Lee” with the trochaic meter. This technique included one stressed syllable following an unstressed syllable. Writing techniques including these have captured the reader’s attention. Although many children’s rhymes have used the trochaic meter, Poe incorporated it into his macabre writings.
Works Cited:
"An Analysis of Annabel Lee." 123HelpMe.com. 08 Feb 2008
http://www.123HelpMe.com/view.asp?id=4160>.
Baldick, Chris. Oxford Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms.
New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
“On Edgar Allan Poe’s ‘The Raven.’” Dana Gioia Online. 08 February 2008
http://www/danagioia.net/essays/epoe.htm
By Matthew Cox
Most forms of poetry have used iambic meters, various pieces of Edgar Allan Poe’s writings used unconventional ways of using syllable beats. The rhythm in poems have used patterns of stressed and unstressed syllables for artistic effect. The most common form of meters is the iambic pentameter. It used five stressed and five unstressed syllables in the same line. Poems by Poe including “The Raven” and “Annabel Lee” used the trochaic meter. The metric scheme involved one stressed syllable followed by and unstressed one in the same line. Children’s poems have used beats like these to engage readers. These writing techniques captured the dark tone of Poe’s works. Various writings of Edgar Allan Poe use the trochaic meter for artistic effect.
An iamb has been a metrical unit or foot used to measure the beat of stressed and unstressed syllables in poems (Baldick, p. 120). Stressed syllables have followed unstressed syllables. Works including sonnets or heroic couples were measured in iambic pentameter. It had five stressed syllables and five unstressed ones, with a total of ten beats. For example, the line “Oft she rejects, but never offends” by Alexander Pope showed an iambic pentameter (120). The iambic tetrameter involved used eight syllables on each line. Half were stressed and the others were unstressed. For example, “Come live with me, and be my love” by Christopher Marlowe used this pattern. Iambic tetrameter was often used in Greek dramas and Renaissance poetry. The least often used pattern has been the iambic hexameter. It referred to a line with three stressed syllables and three unstressed ones.
Edgar Allen Poe’s “The Raven” differed from poems by using the trochaic meter. It used one stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one (Gioia). Such a pattern was more commonly found in children’s nursery rhymes. For example, the beat of “Nevermore” has been “Nev” (stressed), “er” (unstressed), and “more” (stressed). A pattern such as this caught the reader’s attention with an internal rhyme. Overall, the narrative poem told a story of a person shut in a room with "Darkness there, and nothing more" on New Year’s Eve. The speaker whispered the name of his dead girlfriend. He heard a scratching at the door and hoped that it was her ghost. The sound came from the window next. When the narrator opened the window, a raven flew in and landed on the bust of Pallas Athena. The raven has traditionally symbolized death. Landing on a white marble state represented the contrast between light and dark, or life and death. Much of the effect came from the trochaic meter. It gave the poem a songlike quality.
Themes of death and depression were common in Poe’s work. His last published poem “Annabel Lee” dealt with the same idea with various writing effects. The idea behind the writing was a man longing for a woman who died. He used her death as a metaphor of knowing her in “a kingdom by the sea” (123helpme.com). Many literary experts have agreed that Poe wrote “Annabel Lee” in memory of Virginia Clemm, his dead wife. Others speculated that it was an original idea. The depressing tone of the piece was created by iambic and anapestic feet, alternating between tetrameter and trimeter. An anapestic beat was a metrical foot made up by two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed one. For example, the word “interrupt” has broken down as follows:”in” (unstressed), “ter” (unstressed), and “rupt” (stressed).
Various writings of Edgar Allan Poe use the trochaic meter for artistic effect. Many poems in various generas have used iambic meters including the iambic pentameter. This writing technique involved five stressed and unstressed syllables in the same line. Different poems have various numbers of syllables. Poe showed this by writing “The Raven” and “Annabel Lee” with the trochaic meter. This technique included one stressed syllable following an unstressed syllable. Writing techniques including these have captured the reader’s attention. Although many children’s rhymes have used the trochaic meter, Poe incorporated it into his macabre writings.
Works Cited:
"An Analysis of Annabel Lee." 123HelpMe.com. 08 Feb 2008
http://www.123HelpMe.com/view.asp?id=4160>.
Baldick, Chris. Oxford Concise Dictionary of Literary Terms.
New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
“On Edgar Allan Poe’s ‘The Raven.’” Dana Gioia Online. 08 February 2008
http://www/danagioia.net/essays/epoe.htm
Thursday, February 7, 2008
Hawthorne and Hegemony
By Matthew Cox
The writer Nathaniel Hawthone had a prolific impact on American literature in the early 1800’s. As an author in the American Romantic Movement, he wrote about nature, faith, free thought, and similar themes. Many of his works criticized overarching hegemony that suppressed free thought and marginalized people. For example, the classic novel The Scarlet Letter attacked prejudice against individuals who were labeled adulterers. Other writings that found fault with Puritanical beliefs included “My Kinsman, Major Molineaux.” The plot involved a young man who went live with a relative that was ostracized by his neighbors. “The May-Pole of Merry Mount” focused on a young couple who were stripped of their freedom by religious zealots. Nathaniel Hawthorne attacked aspects or Puritan morality with his writings that he deemed oppressive.
The Romantic Movement occurred in both both Europe and the Americas (Holman and Harmon, p. 438-441). There were differences and similarities between the two. British Romanticism included themes of uniting with Ireland, nature, spiritualism, nationalism, disillusion with industry, social skepticism, and intuition. It started in when Samuel Coleridge Taylor and William Wordsworth published the Lyrical Ballads in 1798. The movement officially ended when Charles Dickens died in 1870. American Romanticism was both similar and different. For example, it lasted from 1830 to 1865. Themes included nature, moving west, Native American culture, anti-slavery attitudes in the North, and sectionalism in the South.
Author Nathaniel Hawthorne had a lasting influence on American Romanticism in the 1800’s (Baym, 589-591). Several of his stories focused on American colonial history. They also touched on the lives of common people with Puritan allegories. Although he helped to create the American identity, many of the books criticized social institutions. For example, The Scarlet Letter found fault with attitudes on dealing with people who committed adultery. Readers on both sides of the Atlantic in both the U.S. and Britain enjoyed his work.
Nathaniel Hawthorne’s most famous book was The Scarlet Letter. The plot revolved around a young Puritan woman in Salem, Massachusetts named Hester Prynne (Scharnhorst, xiii-xxviii). She wore a red letter “A” on her chest to show that she committed adultery. She allegedly had an affair with another man while she was waiting for her husband to come over from England. In reality, her husband sent Hester over the American colonies. He planned to come at a later time, but moved to Boston instead. After having the baby named Pearl, Hester is shunned. Both were helped by Arthur Dimsdale, a Protestant minister. The young woman lived alone doing charity work as the pastor went insane from self-torment. Her husband secretly returned as Roger Chillingworth, and made Hester swear to keep his identity secrecy. She moved in with the minister to help nurse him back to health. Chillingworth also cared for the clergyman to see if there was a connection between him and his wife. While Arthur slept, Roger discovered a branded “A” on his chest. Although the doctor thought that it was for adultery, it really meant Angles. Hester redeemed herself to the community with her good deeds. Dimsdale later publically confessed the truth for the brand on his chest, but dies of heart failure resulting from his emotional stress. He revealed his brand-mark before breathing his last breath.
Both Hester and Roger departed for England so they could raise Pearl. However, the daughter did not recognize her after the woman took the scarlet letter off of her chest. So, the mother left it on. Roger died a year after the family returned to Britain. Years later, Hester returned to Salem and lived in the cottage for the rest of her life while wearing the scarlet letter. She continued to do her charity work. Pearl was rumored to have married an aristocrat and inherited Chillingworth’s money. After Prynne died, she was buried in “a new grave near an old and sunken one, in that burial ground beside which King's Chapel has since been built. It was near that old and sunken grave, yet with a space between, as if the dust of the two sleepers had no right to mingle. Yet one tombstone served for both." The townspeople set it up for both Hester and Arthur with an “A” for adultery.
Sin was the major theme of the book. The scarlet letters on Hester on Arthur were labels for sinful behavior. Ironically, it let them understand the misfortunes and suffering of other people. They used this understanding to redeem themselves through charity work. This was apparently a way of criticizing how the Puritan society in Salem for religious hypocrisy. Although the people in town read the Bible, went to church, and “professed” Christianity, they did not really practice it. Labeled outcasts including Prynne and Dimsdale acted more Christian through their suffering.
Other writings from Hawthorne also criticized society’s attitudes of how people were treated. For example, in “My Kinsman, Major Molineaux” Robin, a young man arrived from England to look for his relative, Major Molineux (enotes). After the main character arrived in Boston, nobody knew where the Major was. The townspeople also mistreated Robin. For example, a rich person threatened to have him arrested. An innkeeper accused him of being a runaway bond-servant. Robin always met a man with a red and black face who seemed to be at the center of the problem. The protagonist met an elderly person at the church who knew where Molineux was. A crowd marched by with the red-and-black faced man leading it. He seemed to represent the Devil. For example black symbolized darkness and red ment evil. The major was carried tarred and feathered by the mob. Robin asked the old man the fastest way back to the boat to England. However, the father figure said that Robin could still survive in Boston without Molineux. Like the Scarlett Letter, this story dealt with individuals who were marginalized. The people of Boston were not depicted as members of any religious group. Hawthorne clearly attacked modes of thought and not groups in society.
Hawthorne’s short story “The May-Pole of the Merry Mount” was similar to the other stories (Wikipedia). It centered on a young newlywed couple named Edgar and Edith. They danced around the maypole and resembled forest animals. John Endicott and his group of Puritans arrived. They interrupted the celebration and ordered the people in town to be whipped. Endicott ordered Edith and Edgar to be spared and forced to dress as the Puritans. The young husband had his long hair cut off in the “roundhead” fashion. Both had to dress in conservative clothing. This story was critical of the Puritans of the early American colonies. They suppressed free thought and individualism with their strict views. As a free thinker, Hawthorne thought that any system of ridged thought went against American values.
Nathaniel Hawthorne attacked aspects or Puritan morality with his writings that he deemed oppressive. As a writer in the American Romantic Movement in the 1800’s, he looked for truth in nature, American ideals, spiritualism, and free thought. Several of his writings shed light on segments of society that he believed were unjust or hypocritical. For example, The Scarlet Letter criticized moral beliefs that falsely labeled people as adulterers. The short story called “My Kinsman, Major Molineaux” deal with a British officer who was harassed by people in Boston. Another work called “The May-Pole of Merry Mount” included a group of Puritans who coerced a young couple.
Work Cited:
Baym, Nina, ed. Norton Anthology of American Literature: Shorter Seventh Edition.
New York: Norton, 2008.
“Enotes.” My Kinsman, Major Molineux. http://www.enotes.com/kinsman-major
7 February 2008.
Holman, C. Hugh and Harmon, William. A Handbook to Literature. 5th ed. New York:
MacMillian, 1986.
Scharnhorst, Gary, ed. The Critical Response to Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet
Letter. New York: Greenwood, 1992.
“Wikipedia.” The May-Pole of the Merry Mount.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Maypole_of_Merry_Mount. 7 February 2008
By Matthew Cox
The writer Nathaniel Hawthone had a prolific impact on American literature in the early 1800’s. As an author in the American Romantic Movement, he wrote about nature, faith, free thought, and similar themes. Many of his works criticized overarching hegemony that suppressed free thought and marginalized people. For example, the classic novel The Scarlet Letter attacked prejudice against individuals who were labeled adulterers. Other writings that found fault with Puritanical beliefs included “My Kinsman, Major Molineaux.” The plot involved a young man who went live with a relative that was ostracized by his neighbors. “The May-Pole of Merry Mount” focused on a young couple who were stripped of their freedom by religious zealots. Nathaniel Hawthorne attacked aspects or Puritan morality with his writings that he deemed oppressive.
The Romantic Movement occurred in both both Europe and the Americas (Holman and Harmon, p. 438-441). There were differences and similarities between the two. British Romanticism included themes of uniting with Ireland, nature, spiritualism, nationalism, disillusion with industry, social skepticism, and intuition. It started in when Samuel Coleridge Taylor and William Wordsworth published the Lyrical Ballads in 1798. The movement officially ended when Charles Dickens died in 1870. American Romanticism was both similar and different. For example, it lasted from 1830 to 1865. Themes included nature, moving west, Native American culture, anti-slavery attitudes in the North, and sectionalism in the South.
Author Nathaniel Hawthorne had a lasting influence on American Romanticism in the 1800’s (Baym, 589-591). Several of his stories focused on American colonial history. They also touched on the lives of common people with Puritan allegories. Although he helped to create the American identity, many of the books criticized social institutions. For example, The Scarlet Letter found fault with attitudes on dealing with people who committed adultery. Readers on both sides of the Atlantic in both the U.S. and Britain enjoyed his work.
Nathaniel Hawthorne’s most famous book was The Scarlet Letter. The plot revolved around a young Puritan woman in Salem, Massachusetts named Hester Prynne (Scharnhorst, xiii-xxviii). She wore a red letter “A” on her chest to show that she committed adultery. She allegedly had an affair with another man while she was waiting for her husband to come over from England. In reality, her husband sent Hester over the American colonies. He planned to come at a later time, but moved to Boston instead. After having the baby named Pearl, Hester is shunned. Both were helped by Arthur Dimsdale, a Protestant minister. The young woman lived alone doing charity work as the pastor went insane from self-torment. Her husband secretly returned as Roger Chillingworth, and made Hester swear to keep his identity secrecy. She moved in with the minister to help nurse him back to health. Chillingworth also cared for the clergyman to see if there was a connection between him and his wife. While Arthur slept, Roger discovered a branded “A” on his chest. Although the doctor thought that it was for adultery, it really meant Angles. Hester redeemed herself to the community with her good deeds. Dimsdale later publically confessed the truth for the brand on his chest, but dies of heart failure resulting from his emotional stress. He revealed his brand-mark before breathing his last breath.
Both Hester and Roger departed for England so they could raise Pearl. However, the daughter did not recognize her after the woman took the scarlet letter off of her chest. So, the mother left it on. Roger died a year after the family returned to Britain. Years later, Hester returned to Salem and lived in the cottage for the rest of her life while wearing the scarlet letter. She continued to do her charity work. Pearl was rumored to have married an aristocrat and inherited Chillingworth’s money. After Prynne died, she was buried in “a new grave near an old and sunken one, in that burial ground beside which King's Chapel has since been built. It was near that old and sunken grave, yet with a space between, as if the dust of the two sleepers had no right to mingle. Yet one tombstone served for both." The townspeople set it up for both Hester and Arthur with an “A” for adultery.
Sin was the major theme of the book. The scarlet letters on Hester on Arthur were labels for sinful behavior. Ironically, it let them understand the misfortunes and suffering of other people. They used this understanding to redeem themselves through charity work. This was apparently a way of criticizing how the Puritan society in Salem for religious hypocrisy. Although the people in town read the Bible, went to church, and “professed” Christianity, they did not really practice it. Labeled outcasts including Prynne and Dimsdale acted more Christian through their suffering.
Other writings from Hawthorne also criticized society’s attitudes of how people were treated. For example, in “My Kinsman, Major Molineaux” Robin, a young man arrived from England to look for his relative, Major Molineux (enotes). After the main character arrived in Boston, nobody knew where the Major was. The townspeople also mistreated Robin. For example, a rich person threatened to have him arrested. An innkeeper accused him of being a runaway bond-servant. Robin always met a man with a red and black face who seemed to be at the center of the problem. The protagonist met an elderly person at the church who knew where Molineux was. A crowd marched by with the red-and-black faced man leading it. He seemed to represent the Devil. For example black symbolized darkness and red ment evil. The major was carried tarred and feathered by the mob. Robin asked the old man the fastest way back to the boat to England. However, the father figure said that Robin could still survive in Boston without Molineux. Like the Scarlett Letter, this story dealt with individuals who were marginalized. The people of Boston were not depicted as members of any religious group. Hawthorne clearly attacked modes of thought and not groups in society.
Hawthorne’s short story “The May-Pole of the Merry Mount” was similar to the other stories (Wikipedia). It centered on a young newlywed couple named Edgar and Edith. They danced around the maypole and resembled forest animals. John Endicott and his group of Puritans arrived. They interrupted the celebration and ordered the people in town to be whipped. Endicott ordered Edith and Edgar to be spared and forced to dress as the Puritans. The young husband had his long hair cut off in the “roundhead” fashion. Both had to dress in conservative clothing. This story was critical of the Puritans of the early American colonies. They suppressed free thought and individualism with their strict views. As a free thinker, Hawthorne thought that any system of ridged thought went against American values.
Nathaniel Hawthorne attacked aspects or Puritan morality with his writings that he deemed oppressive. As a writer in the American Romantic Movement in the 1800’s, he looked for truth in nature, American ideals, spiritualism, and free thought. Several of his writings shed light on segments of society that he believed were unjust or hypocritical. For example, The Scarlet Letter criticized moral beliefs that falsely labeled people as adulterers. The short story called “My Kinsman, Major Molineaux” deal with a British officer who was harassed by people in Boston. Another work called “The May-Pole of Merry Mount” included a group of Puritans who coerced a young couple.
Work Cited:
Baym, Nina, ed. Norton Anthology of American Literature: Shorter Seventh Edition.
New York: Norton, 2008.
“Enotes.” My Kinsman, Major Molineux. http://www.enotes.com/kinsman-major
7 February 2008.
Holman, C. Hugh and Harmon, William. A Handbook to Literature. 5th ed. New York:
MacMillian, 1986.
Scharnhorst, Gary, ed. The Critical Response to Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet
Letter. New York: Greenwood, 1992.
“Wikipedia.” The May-Pole of the Merry Mount.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Maypole_of_Merry_Mount. 7 February 2008
Monday, February 4, 2008
The Last of the Mohicans and American Idealism
By Matthew Cox
James Fenimore Cooper expressed both American idealism and sentiment in his series called The Leatherstocking Tales. The ideals shown in the books, particularily in The Last of the Mohicans, included independence, patriotism, democracy, and hard work among others. Natty Bumpo, the protagonist, showed sentiment, the goodness of people, by helping those in need. Literary critics pointed out that the action-based plots and idealized character were a little unrealitic. However, such action and suspense in the novels have been an elements good storytelling. Bumpo and other characters have tragic flaws to help connect them with the reader. The other four books in the Leatherstocking Tales explored similar themes. Later writers modeled their characters including Sam Spade from Natty Bumpo. James Fennimore Cooper’s stories showed idealism and sentiment to demonstrate American virtues in the Last of the Mohicans.
Sentiment has described the expression of emotion which implied the goodness of a character or humankind (Stevenson, p. 188). It was found in many literacry generas and served manu purposes. In early American literature, it was used as a way to teach the American virtues of honesty, democracy, hard work, and the like. Writers in the late 1700’s and early 1800’s used stories of real or imaginary characters to set examples of decent living. Ideaism has been similar to ideology in which attitudes, values and beliefs are shaped by political interests (10). The main difference was that idealism reflected the belief that people can improve society. Such concepts were enshrined in the founding beliefs of the U.S. that free people had the opprotunity to improve themselves. As Americans moved west of the Appalachian Mountains, they followed the dream of improving their lives in the frontier. Books including the Leatherstocking Tales reflected this drive. The main character, Natty Bumpo, was the hero of the stories. His most popular adventure was the Last of the Mohicans. James Fenimore Cooper used senitmenal appeal to show Americans about the value of riteous living in his stories.
The basic plot of the Last of the Mohicans concerned a massacre during the French and Indian War (Wikipedia). Between 500 and 1500 people at Ft. Henry Williams were killed by the French Algonquins. Those killed included unarmed soldiers, their wives, and servants. The two daughters of the British commander, Cora and Alice, were kidnapped. Natty Bumpo, nicknamed Hawk-Eye, and two Mohicans, Uncas and Chingachgook went behind enemy lines to rescue the two girls. The title of the book came from the quote by Tamanend, “I have seen th last warrior of the wise race of Mohicans.” Uncas was the last Mohican.
Literary critics have argued that Natty Bumpo was a thinly disguised person that Cooper new. Such a person had three dimesnions to his character: mimetic, thematic and synthetic (Davey). The mimetic aspects made him a plausable person. Thematic dimensions represented certain ideals including hard work, integrity, and independent. Synthetic qualities have apperared artificial in context to the plot and story progression. Such dimesnions have been abstract as to blend Natty Bumpo into the setting of the novel. Giving the protagonist realistic, but exagerated qualities allowed the reader to identify with him. The story islef was slightly unrealistic as with most adventure tales. Literature critic James Phelan argued that the mimetic viewpoint was stronger than the other two. That was Cooper’s way of letting readers see both Hawk-Eyes tragic flaw of foolhardy bravery. It let people see Bumpo’s positives sides including compassion and understanding the frontier. Also, using a historical setting let people see the patriotic aspects of Last of the Mohicans.
Peter Rabinowitz, another literary scholar, described the writing as appealing only to a small group of people who agreed with Cooper’s patriotism. However, this was not the case because Last of the Mohicans has survived the test of time. Also, the work has appealed to a wide variety of individuals. It touched on themes or ideals including heroism, individuality, and the innate goodness of people such as Natty Bumpo. The French and Algonquins represented an evil, controlling force due to the massacre at Ft. William Henry. Using the frontier setting also reflected the enterprising spirit of the U.S. by exploring new territory.
The other four books had similar themes of idealism and sentiment. For example, The Deerslayer involved Bumpo, nicknamed Deerslayer, as a frontiersman (Walker, p. 32-36). He was a friend of Native Americans and stopped two other men in the wilderness from capturing Indians for scalping. Idealistic themes in The Deerslayer included a respect for nature and the Native Americans. Book No. 3 was called the Pathfinder. The plot involved Bumpo rescuing people travelling to Ft. Oswego from hostile Native Americans. It differed slightly from the first two books because Bumpo falls in love with Mabel Duncan, another character. Fourth in the series, The Pioneers dealt with Natty’s arguement with Judge Marmaduke Temple over who killed a deer. Themes explored in the book included how people must care for nature and use their freedoms to help one another. The Prairie concerned Bumpo saving the family of Ishmael Bush from their own inexperience in the wilderness. Natty showed how people on the frontier needed to help each other by teaching them how to live off of the land. This story strongly expressed Cooper’s sentiment about human goodness.
The image of Natty Bumpo has become an American icon (Praxis p. 58). Many writers have used him as a model for their own characters. For example, Sam Spade was modeled after Hawk-Eye. Instead of living in the frontier and helping pioneers, Spade was streetwise and helped crime victims. Cooper helped America define many types of genaras.
James Fennimore Cooper’s stories showed idealism and sentiment to demonstrate American virtues in the Last of the Mohicans. In general, all five books in The Leatherstocking Tales explored similar themes including free thought, initiative, good citizenship, and the like. Natty Bumpo’s character embraced sentiment by helping needy people. Literature scholars concidered Bumpo’s strengths to be just as important as his weaknesses. For example, Deerslayer’s foolisness went along with his compassion. They also pointed out that the fast-paced action in the books engaged the reader. Other literary characters including detective Sam Spade were modeled after Natty Bumpo.
Works Cited
Davey, Michael. “Convention and the Limits of Biography for Literary
Criticism: Fathers, Daughters, and Sentiment in Cooper’s Last of the
Mohicans.” James Fenimore Cooper Society. 36 aragraphs. August 2001.
http://external.oneonta.edu/cooper/journal.html#prairie
“Last of the Mohicans.” Wikipedia. 15 paragraphs. 31 August 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_of_the_Mohicans
Walker, Warren. James Fennimore Cooper: An Introduction and
Interpritation. New York: Holt, 1962.
Praxis Study Guide, English Language, Literature, and Composition: Content Knowledge. Princeton: Educational Testing Service, 2004.
By Matthew Cox
James Fenimore Cooper expressed both American idealism and sentiment in his series called The Leatherstocking Tales. The ideals shown in the books, particularily in The Last of the Mohicans, included independence, patriotism, democracy, and hard work among others. Natty Bumpo, the protagonist, showed sentiment, the goodness of people, by helping those in need. Literary critics pointed out that the action-based plots and idealized character were a little unrealitic. However, such action and suspense in the novels have been an elements good storytelling. Bumpo and other characters have tragic flaws to help connect them with the reader. The other four books in the Leatherstocking Tales explored similar themes. Later writers modeled their characters including Sam Spade from Natty Bumpo. James Fennimore Cooper’s stories showed idealism and sentiment to demonstrate American virtues in the Last of the Mohicans.
Sentiment has described the expression of emotion which implied the goodness of a character or humankind (Stevenson, p. 188). It was found in many literacry generas and served manu purposes. In early American literature, it was used as a way to teach the American virtues of honesty, democracy, hard work, and the like. Writers in the late 1700’s and early 1800’s used stories of real or imaginary characters to set examples of decent living. Ideaism has been similar to ideology in which attitudes, values and beliefs are shaped by political interests (10). The main difference was that idealism reflected the belief that people can improve society. Such concepts were enshrined in the founding beliefs of the U.S. that free people had the opprotunity to improve themselves. As Americans moved west of the Appalachian Mountains, they followed the dream of improving their lives in the frontier. Books including the Leatherstocking Tales reflected this drive. The main character, Natty Bumpo, was the hero of the stories. His most popular adventure was the Last of the Mohicans. James Fenimore Cooper used senitmenal appeal to show Americans about the value of riteous living in his stories.
The basic plot of the Last of the Mohicans concerned a massacre during the French and Indian War (Wikipedia). Between 500 and 1500 people at Ft. Henry Williams were killed by the French Algonquins. Those killed included unarmed soldiers, their wives, and servants. The two daughters of the British commander, Cora and Alice, were kidnapped. Natty Bumpo, nicknamed Hawk-Eye, and two Mohicans, Uncas and Chingachgook went behind enemy lines to rescue the two girls. The title of the book came from the quote by Tamanend, “I have seen th last warrior of the wise race of Mohicans.” Uncas was the last Mohican.
Literary critics have argued that Natty Bumpo was a thinly disguised person that Cooper new. Such a person had three dimesnions to his character: mimetic, thematic and synthetic (Davey). The mimetic aspects made him a plausable person. Thematic dimensions represented certain ideals including hard work, integrity, and independent. Synthetic qualities have apperared artificial in context to the plot and story progression. Such dimesnions have been abstract as to blend Natty Bumpo into the setting of the novel. Giving the protagonist realistic, but exagerated qualities allowed the reader to identify with him. The story islef was slightly unrealistic as with most adventure tales. Literature critic James Phelan argued that the mimetic viewpoint was stronger than the other two. That was Cooper’s way of letting readers see both Hawk-Eyes tragic flaw of foolhardy bravery. It let people see Bumpo’s positives sides including compassion and understanding the frontier. Also, using a historical setting let people see the patriotic aspects of Last of the Mohicans.
Peter Rabinowitz, another literary scholar, described the writing as appealing only to a small group of people who agreed with Cooper’s patriotism. However, this was not the case because Last of the Mohicans has survived the test of time. Also, the work has appealed to a wide variety of individuals. It touched on themes or ideals including heroism, individuality, and the innate goodness of people such as Natty Bumpo. The French and Algonquins represented an evil, controlling force due to the massacre at Ft. William Henry. Using the frontier setting also reflected the enterprising spirit of the U.S. by exploring new territory.
The other four books had similar themes of idealism and sentiment. For example, The Deerslayer involved Bumpo, nicknamed Deerslayer, as a frontiersman (Walker, p. 32-36). He was a friend of Native Americans and stopped two other men in the wilderness from capturing Indians for scalping. Idealistic themes in The Deerslayer included a respect for nature and the Native Americans. Book No. 3 was called the Pathfinder. The plot involved Bumpo rescuing people travelling to Ft. Oswego from hostile Native Americans. It differed slightly from the first two books because Bumpo falls in love with Mabel Duncan, another character. Fourth in the series, The Pioneers dealt with Natty’s arguement with Judge Marmaduke Temple over who killed a deer. Themes explored in the book included how people must care for nature and use their freedoms to help one another. The Prairie concerned Bumpo saving the family of Ishmael Bush from their own inexperience in the wilderness. Natty showed how people on the frontier needed to help each other by teaching them how to live off of the land. This story strongly expressed Cooper’s sentiment about human goodness.
The image of Natty Bumpo has become an American icon (Praxis p. 58). Many writers have used him as a model for their own characters. For example, Sam Spade was modeled after Hawk-Eye. Instead of living in the frontier and helping pioneers, Spade was streetwise and helped crime victims. Cooper helped America define many types of genaras.
James Fennimore Cooper’s stories showed idealism and sentiment to demonstrate American virtues in the Last of the Mohicans. In general, all five books in The Leatherstocking Tales explored similar themes including free thought, initiative, good citizenship, and the like. Natty Bumpo’s character embraced sentiment by helping needy people. Literature scholars concidered Bumpo’s strengths to be just as important as his weaknesses. For example, Deerslayer’s foolisness went along with his compassion. They also pointed out that the fast-paced action in the books engaged the reader. Other literary characters including detective Sam Spade were modeled after Natty Bumpo.
Works Cited
Davey, Michael. “Convention and the Limits of Biography for Literary
Criticism: Fathers, Daughters, and Sentiment in Cooper’s Last of the
Mohicans.” James Fenimore Cooper Society. 36 aragraphs. August 2001.
http://external.oneonta.edu/cooper/journal.html#prairie
“Last of the Mohicans.” Wikipedia. 15 paragraphs. 31 August 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_of_the_Mohicans
Walker, Warren. James Fennimore Cooper: An Introduction and
Interpritation. New York: Holt, 1962.
Praxis Study Guide, English Language, Literature, and Composition: Content Knowledge. Princeton: Educational Testing Service, 2004.
Saturday, February 2, 2008
Washington Irving and the American Identity
By Matthew Cox
19th Century writer Washington Irving helped to create the American identity though literature. Using techniques from European Romantic writers, he drew readers into his stories through nature, vivid images, interesting characters, folklore, historical references, and the like. European empires used mystification by regulating art and literature. They did this to make their authority seem natural or universal. American writers at this time demystified the influence of British control by glorifying self-reliance, democracy, and hard work. Works including the “Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle” used unusual characters, plot twists, superstition, historical references, and the like to spread American ideals. This was important to establish a national identity and not control people. Washington Irving used his stories to assert the ideas of American democracy.
Mystification is the process of hiding political values by disguising them to seem natural, universal, or transcendental (Stevenson, p.32). Oppressive societies including Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union used propaganda to make their agendas seem common to the people that they ruled. Other regimes in history did the same thing by censoring or regulating speech, writings, art, or other forms of expression. The British Empire used similar methods to control their colonies in the 1700’s. After the War of Independence, the Americans used art and writings to convey their values as free people. Such ideas included hard work, patriotism, loyalty to family, democracy, free thought, and the like. Concepts like these were not intended to control people. They were used to teach individuals principles important to a democratic society.
Writers including Washington Irving used common people, visual imagery, folklore, familiar locations (i.e. the Catskill Mountains), and the like to convey his ideas in ways that readers could understand (Norberg, p. xiii). Irving, famously known as the First Man of American Letters, wrote two of America’s best known stories: “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” Both of these tales came from The Sketch-Book. They were a collection of short stories published in 1820. It helped to establish Irving as a serious writer.
"Rip Van Winkle” told the story of a Dutch-American who is lazy, but easy-going in the second person. He does not care about work, raising his family, or anything productive. These were character flaws also known as hamartia. It was used to connect the main character to readers by appearing human. He lived in a small town in the Catskill Mountains. The setting used visual images including trees, scenic views, descriptions of the village, colorful costumes, and the like to engage the reader. Additionally, Irving used local traditions and folklore to bring the setting to life. Techniques such as these were used by Romantic writers to appeal to common people and glorify nature. Beneath the romanticized exterior, there are certain principles beneath. For example, Rip was lazy, but taught readers the consequences of not living up to one’s responsibilities; he got lost and slept for twenty years. Also, the writer referred to historical figures and events. These included Henry Hudson’s exploration of the Northeast (xviii-xix). Using Hudson’s men as spirits also connected the readers to local superstition. This showed the historical dimension of New York’s Dutch and British past. Using the hyperbole of sleeping for twenty years seemed to reflect Christian temperance in Irving’s Presbyterian Background. Furthermore, Irving used patriotic symbols in the story. For example, the village inn became the “Union Hotel.” Rip’s rude awakening to these changes also help to spread awareness for democratic change.
“The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” has had similar themes, but told in different ways in second person (xix). For example, Irving used visual imagery including mountains, trees, colorful people, folklore, and other things to draw readers into the story. Ichabod Crane, the protagonist, was the school master in the town of Sleepy Hollow. He was portrayed as awkward and naïve Swiftian caricature. The schoolmaster was a hard working, educated person who was in love with Katrina Van Tassel. She was the daughter of a wealthy Dutch land owner, Baltus Van Tassel. Both Ichabod and Balthus were portrayed as model American citizens-successful, enterprising, and learning new things. Such values reflected the American ideals of hard work and self-reliance. Brom Bones was the antagonist who harassed Crane. He was jealous and wanted to marry Katrina. This appeared to represent the dark side of human nature with opportunism. The rising action of the story happened when the Headless Horseman chased Ichabod to the safety of a covered bridge; superstition told that evil spirits such as the Headless Horseman could not cross running water. Irving made historical references to Revolutionary War battles, war heroes, and the like. He felt that these ideas were important for instilling patriotic ideals into Americans. Washington left Crane’s fate open ended. This has let the reader for form own ideas about what happened to him.
Washington Irving used his stories to assert the ideas of American democracy. Writers in the early 1800’s used images of nature, folklore, superstition, unusual heroes, and historical allusions to create a sense of national identity. European Romantic writers used similar methods to draw common people into their works. Empires in Europe used mystification and propaganda to rule different nations. This let their domination natural or universal. American writers spread democracy by writing stories demonstrating free thought, hard work, and democratic freedom. Washington Irving used “Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle” to help shape the American identity. He used plots that people understood and characters that readers could identify with.
Works Cited
Norberg, Peter. “The First Man of Letters.” The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Other Writings. Ed. Peter Norberg. New York: Barnes and Noble, 2006.
Stephenson, Jay. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to English Literature. New York: Penguin, 2007.
By Matthew Cox
19th Century writer Washington Irving helped to create the American identity though literature. Using techniques from European Romantic writers, he drew readers into his stories through nature, vivid images, interesting characters, folklore, historical references, and the like. European empires used mystification by regulating art and literature. They did this to make their authority seem natural or universal. American writers at this time demystified the influence of British control by glorifying self-reliance, democracy, and hard work. Works including the “Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle” used unusual characters, plot twists, superstition, historical references, and the like to spread American ideals. This was important to establish a national identity and not control people. Washington Irving used his stories to assert the ideas of American democracy.
Mystification is the process of hiding political values by disguising them to seem natural, universal, or transcendental (Stevenson, p.32). Oppressive societies including Nazi Germany or the Soviet Union used propaganda to make their agendas seem common to the people that they ruled. Other regimes in history did the same thing by censoring or regulating speech, writings, art, or other forms of expression. The British Empire used similar methods to control their colonies in the 1700’s. After the War of Independence, the Americans used art and writings to convey their values as free people. Such ideas included hard work, patriotism, loyalty to family, democracy, free thought, and the like. Concepts like these were not intended to control people. They were used to teach individuals principles important to a democratic society.
Writers including Washington Irving used common people, visual imagery, folklore, familiar locations (i.e. the Catskill Mountains), and the like to convey his ideas in ways that readers could understand (Norberg, p. xiii). Irving, famously known as the First Man of American Letters, wrote two of America’s best known stories: “Rip Van Winkle” and “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow.” Both of these tales came from The Sketch-Book. They were a collection of short stories published in 1820. It helped to establish Irving as a serious writer.
"Rip Van Winkle” told the story of a Dutch-American who is lazy, but easy-going in the second person. He does not care about work, raising his family, or anything productive. These were character flaws also known as hamartia. It was used to connect the main character to readers by appearing human. He lived in a small town in the Catskill Mountains. The setting used visual images including trees, scenic views, descriptions of the village, colorful costumes, and the like to engage the reader. Additionally, Irving used local traditions and folklore to bring the setting to life. Techniques such as these were used by Romantic writers to appeal to common people and glorify nature. Beneath the romanticized exterior, there are certain principles beneath. For example, Rip was lazy, but taught readers the consequences of not living up to one’s responsibilities; he got lost and slept for twenty years. Also, the writer referred to historical figures and events. These included Henry Hudson’s exploration of the Northeast (xviii-xix). Using Hudson’s men as spirits also connected the readers to local superstition. This showed the historical dimension of New York’s Dutch and British past. Using the hyperbole of sleeping for twenty years seemed to reflect Christian temperance in Irving’s Presbyterian Background. Furthermore, Irving used patriotic symbols in the story. For example, the village inn became the “Union Hotel.” Rip’s rude awakening to these changes also help to spread awareness for democratic change.
“The Legend of Sleepy Hollow” has had similar themes, but told in different ways in second person (xix). For example, Irving used visual imagery including mountains, trees, colorful people, folklore, and other things to draw readers into the story. Ichabod Crane, the protagonist, was the school master in the town of Sleepy Hollow. He was portrayed as awkward and naïve Swiftian caricature. The schoolmaster was a hard working, educated person who was in love with Katrina Van Tassel. She was the daughter of a wealthy Dutch land owner, Baltus Van Tassel. Both Ichabod and Balthus were portrayed as model American citizens-successful, enterprising, and learning new things. Such values reflected the American ideals of hard work and self-reliance. Brom Bones was the antagonist who harassed Crane. He was jealous and wanted to marry Katrina. This appeared to represent the dark side of human nature with opportunism. The rising action of the story happened when the Headless Horseman chased Ichabod to the safety of a covered bridge; superstition told that evil spirits such as the Headless Horseman could not cross running water. Irving made historical references to Revolutionary War battles, war heroes, and the like. He felt that these ideas were important for instilling patriotic ideals into Americans. Washington left Crane’s fate open ended. This has let the reader for form own ideas about what happened to him.
Washington Irving used his stories to assert the ideas of American democracy. Writers in the early 1800’s used images of nature, folklore, superstition, unusual heroes, and historical allusions to create a sense of national identity. European Romantic writers used similar methods to draw common people into their works. Empires in Europe used mystification and propaganda to rule different nations. This let their domination natural or universal. American writers spread democracy by writing stories demonstrating free thought, hard work, and democratic freedom. Washington Irving used “Legend of Sleepy Hollow” and “Rip Van Winkle” to help shape the American identity. He used plots that people understood and characters that readers could identify with.
Works Cited
Norberg, Peter. “The First Man of Letters.” The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Other Writings. Ed. Peter Norberg. New York: Barnes and Noble, 2006.
Stephenson, Jay. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to English Literature. New York: Penguin, 2007.
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